The Poetics of Love in the Dramatic Vision of Bhavabhūti
Sudipta Mondal
Ph.D. Research Scholar, UGC-JRF Fellow,
Department of Sanskrit, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India.
Email: sudiptomondalju@gmail.com / Mob.: 8001127290
Abstract: Bhavabhūti, one of the foremost dramatists of classical Sanskrit literature, is renowned for the depth of his emotional expression. This research paper explores the aesthetic dimensions of love in his plays — Uttararāmacarita, Mālatīmādhava and Mahāvīracarita. Unlike conventional romantic portrayals, Bhavabhūti presents love as a spiritual and moral ideal marked by devotion, sacrifice and patience. By integrating śṛṅgāra rasa with psychological insight, his depiction transcends worldly attraction and reflects emotional maturity. His dramatic vision reveals love as a transformative force that elevates human character and deepens the audience’s experience, establishing him as a distinctive poet of profound and enduring love.
Keywords: Bhavabhūti, Love, Śṛṅgāra Rasa, Sanskrit Drama, Aesthetics, Uttararāmacarita.
Introduction
Bhavabhūti, a leading dramatist of classical Sanskrit literature, is distinguished by the depth of his emotional expression and the refinement of his poetic vision. Among the various sentiments depicted in his works, love occupies a central position. Unlike conventional portrayals of romantic attraction, he elevates love to a spiritual and moral ideal characterized by devotion, sacrifice, patience and inner strength. His major plays — Uttararāmacarita, Mālatīmādhava and Mahāvīracarita — demonstrate how love functions as a transformative force that ennobles human character and deepens the aesthetic experience. By integrating the principles of Śṛṅgāra Rasa with psychological insight, Bhavabhūti presents love as an experience that transcends ordinary emotion and reflects compassion, emotional maturity and spiritual elevation. This study examines the poetics of love in his dramatic works, highlighting their philosophical and aesthetic dimensions within the broader framework of Sanskrit literary theory. At a fundamental level, love is understood as an intrinsic human tendency arising either from predestined affinity (tārā-maitraka) or from spontaneous attraction (cakṣurāga). For Bhavabhūti, however, love attains a sacred status comparable to divinity, transcending physical existence. The ideal expression of such love is found in the relationship between Rāma and Sītā, which, despite suffering and separation, culminates in reunion, affirming the enduring power of genuine affection. Furthermore, Bhavabhūti expands the concept of love beyond conjugal relations to include filial affection, friendship and universal compassion. In Mālatīmādhava, the immediate attraction between Mālatī and Mādhava exemplifies the spontaneous and irrational nature of true love. Ultimately, Bhavabhūti presents a profound vision in which love emerges as an eternal and universal force that sustains, elevates and harmonizes human existence.
Objectives
Although Uttararāmacarita, Mālatīmādhava and Mahāvīracarita, composed by Bhavabhūti, contain certain discussions pertaining to the poetics of love, no comprehensive and systematic study devoted exclusively to this theme has yet been undertaken. The present work, therefore, constitutes a sincere attempt to examine and elucidate the various concepts of the poetics of love as manifested in Uttararāmacarita, Mālatīmādhava and Mahāvīracarita.
Methodology
This research paper employs both analytical and descriptive methodologies. It is based on Uttararāmacarita, Mālatīmādhava and Mahāvīracarita, composed by Bhavabhūti. Endnotes are used for additional references. The titles of books, authors names, characters etc., are presented in italics and diacritical marks are employed where necessary.
Literature Review
The dramatic works of Bhavabhūti have long attracted the attention of scholars of Sanskrit literature due to their emotional depth, philosophical seriousness and refined poetic expression. Among the recurring themes in his plays, the representation of love occupies a central position. A. B. Keith, in The Sanskrit Drama, notes that Bhavabhūti stands apart for the seriousness and emotional intensity of his art. Unlike other dramatists who emphasize decorative elegance, Bhavabhūti displays profound psychological insight. His portrayal of love, particularly in Uttararāmacarita, explores suffering, separation and emotional endurance, combining śṛṅgāra with karuṇa rasa to create a deeply moving effect. Similarly, M. Winternitz, in History of Indian Literature, emphasizes the contemplative nature of Bhavabhūti’s conception of love. In Mālatīmādhava, love is depicted as a powerful force capable of overcoming social and emotional obstacles. S. K. De, in History of Sanskrit Poetics, highlights Bhavabhūti’s mastery of rasa theory, noting the psychological subtlety and sincerity of his depiction of love, especially in the relationship between Rāma and Sītā. Modern scholars such as Sheldon Pollock further underline the philosophical dimension of Bhavabhūti’s dramatic vision, viewing love as a transformative experience that refines character and deepens emotional awareness. Daniel Ingalls and A. K. Warder also stress the aesthetic richness of his works, pointing to the balance between emotional intensity, simplicity of language and dramatic tension arising from conflicts between love, duty and social responsibility. R. D. Karmarkar, in his monograph on Bhavabhūti, emphasizes that the dramatist presents love not as a fleeting passion but as a mature and enduring bond shaped by time and mutual understanding. Despite this extensive scholarly research, relatively few studies focus specifically on the poetic and philosophical dimensions of love in Bhavabhūti’s works. The present study therefore seeks to re-examine this theme through selected passages from his major plays, demonstrating how he transforms love into a profound emotional and philosophical experience within the tradition of Sanskrit literature.
Love, Emotion and Poetics in the Dramatic Thought of Bhavabhūti
Love is a fundamental aspect of human existence, manifesting as a deep and tender bond of attachment and affection. It may arise from tārā-maitraka (destined affinity) or cakṣurāga (love at first sight), often without any apparent cause. For Bhavabhūti, love is infinite and eternal, permeating all forms of existence. Its highest expression appears in the conjugal relationship between Rāma and Sītā, yet it is not confined to this alone. Departing from Vālmīki’s tragic vision, Bhavabhūti transforms their love into a redemptive journey culminating in reunion, affirming that true love never fails. He presents love as a sustaining and transformative force capable of overcoming suffering, even beyond the limits of a single lifetime. Furthermore, Bhavabhūti broadens the concept of love to include filial affection, friendship, compassion and universal harmony. Thus, love emerges as a unifying principle underlying all existence. In Mālatīmādhava, the instantaneous attraction between Mālatī and Mādhava exemplifies the spontaneous and causeless nature of love. Bhavabhūti ultimately presents love as a profound emotional and philosophical force that transcends rational explanation and elevates human life.
In the sixth act of Uttararāmacarita, when Rāma beholds Lava, he experiences a profound affection that brings relief from all sorrow and he declares:
स्नेहश्च निमित्तसव्यपेक्ष इति विप्रतिषिद्धमेतत् ।
The same statement is echoed by Makaranda in the first act of Malatimādhava. Love is never dependent upon external circumstances; rather, it arises from an inner cause that powerfully attracts two beings and ultimately unites them. In real life, beyond the calculations of desire and fulfillment, gain and loss, Bhavabhūti firmly presents in his dramas the doctrine of love as a mysterious inner impulse that draws two enchanted hearts toward one another. The most significant expressions of his philosophy of love are found particularly in Malatimādhava and Uttararāmacarita.
An extraordinary reflection of an inexplicable and deep attraction of a son toward an unknown father is found in the sixth act of Uttararāmacarita, in the character of Lava. Although Lava had previously heard of Rāma’s character from the recitation of the Ramayana and was not particularly reverential toward him, his reaction becomes entirely different when he meets Rāma face to face:
अहो! पुण्यानुभावदर्शनोऽयं महापुरुषः।
He realizes that Rāmacandra is a great refuge of reassurance, affection and reverence; he appears to be the very embodiment of righteousness and purity. Although he had once been a severe critic of Rāma, this causeless affection and reverence that the son feels toward his unknown father is nothing but another form of love. Overwhelmed by the extraordinary power of this love, Lava feels:
विरोधो विश्रान्तः प्रसरति रसो निर्वृतिघन-
स्तदौद्धत्यं क्वापि व्रजति विनयः प्रह्वयति माम्।
झटित्यस्मिन् दृष्टे किमिव परवानस्मि यदि वा
महार्घस्तीर्थानामिव हि महतां कोऽप्यतिशयः ॥1
A noble ideal of mutual affection and goodwill between two friends is expressed in the statement of Sugrīva in the fifth act of Mahāvīracarita:
प्राणैरपि हिता वृत्तिरद्रोहो व्याजवर्जनम्।
आत्मन इव प्रियाधानमेतन्मैत्री महाव्रतम् ॥2
Even at the cost of one’s life, to act for the welfare of a friend, to abandon hostility, to remain free from deceit and to secure the beloved good of the friend as one’s own — this is the great vow called friendship.
Although externally the forms of the two friends may be different, inwardly they are essentially one. Just as the marriage bond between man and woman is sanctified by the mantras of the Rigveda, so too the bond of friendship has its own sacred formula:
मम हृदयं तेऽस्तु तवेव हृदयं च मे ।3
- Let my heart be yours and let your heart indeed be mine.
In Mālatīmādhava also, the poet presents a brilliant example of friendship marked by sacrifice and selflessness in the relationship between Mādhava and Makaranda.
In Uttararāmacarita, Lava and Candraketu are both descendants of the Raghu dynasty— the sons of Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa respectively. Yet they remain covered by the darkness of mutual unfamiliarity. Although circumstances lead them into conflict, an unknown force of affection, like the powerful attraction of a magnet, binds them in a close bond of friendship.
On the banks of the Yamunā the flute of Kṛṣṇa has been resonating since eternity. Just as Rādhā becomes overwhelmed by the enchanting melody of that flute, so too the poet Bhavabhūti perceived and felt that in this love-filled universe the deity of love continues to play a melodious and auspicious song of love and the entire world dances and rejoices in its rhythm. Thus, the creatures of the Daṇḍakāraṇya forest, the forest-goddess Vasantī, the divine Bhāgīrathī and the Earth and the sage’s wife Arundhatī — all become coloured with various shades of love and appear illuminated in the poetic vision of Bhavabhūti. Thus, they appear illuminated. The young elephant follows his beloved she-elephant under the irresistible attraction of love and the bee does not abandon the old Kadamba tree because of its attachment and affection. Therefore, the poet remarks:
तिर्यञ्चोऽपि परिचयमनुरुध्यन्ते।
- Even animals remain bound by the ties of affection and familiarity.
For Bhavabhūti, the most exalted manifestation of love lies in the love between man and woman — both in pre-marital affection and in the conjugal love that follows marriage. In Malatimadhava, the poet beautifully portrays the phenomenon of love at first sight between Mālatī and Mādhava before their marriage. Love develops through various stages. At the very first sight, the affection between two enchanted hearts gradually blossoms — sometimes through an eager longing for another glimpse, sometimes through gentle sidelong glances, sometimes through sweet smiles and sometimes through the intimate gestures of affection. Thus, the flower of love gradually unfolds. The companions of love advance irresistibly —sometimes in union, sometimes in separation and sometimes along the varied pathways of joy and sorrow.
Bhavabhūti appears to have embraced a vast and universal conception of love. His idea of love was not confined to the relationship between man and woman; rather, it extended to the wider sphere of human relationships, including parental affection, filial reverence, fraternal bonds and even the goodwill felt between individuals without any formal relationship. All these forms an integral part of his conception of love. Moreover, his vision includes not only human beings but also animals, birds, trees, rivers, mountains and the natural world. At the centre of creation lies this principle of love, which is spontaneous and causeless. It flows naturally in its own course and defies rational explanation, existing as an uncaused inclination of the heart. Bhavabhūti states:
अहेतुः पक्षपातो यस्तस्य नास्ति प्रतिक्रिया।
स हि स्नेहात्मकस्तन्तुरन्तर्मर्माणि सीव्यति ॥4
He further declares in the sixth act of Uttararāmacarita:
स्नेहश्च निमित्तसव्यपेक्षश्च इति विप्रतिषिद्धमेतत्।
Love and dependence upon external causes are mutually contradictory. In other words, love arises spontaneously. Love that depends upon utilitarian motives or practical needs cannot truly be called love; it is merely an illusion or semblance of love. According to Bhavabhūti, true love resembles the naturally radiant and beneficent brilliance of sunlight, where there is no expectation of utility or fulfillment of selfish desires.
To illustrate this natural and effortless affection within the realm of nature, he gives examples: the lotus blossoms naturally at the rising of the sun and when the moon appears, the moonstone sheds drop of moisture-like tears of joy. The love of the lotus for the sun and that of the moonstone for the moon does not depend on any external cause; it is inherent in their very nature. Bhavabhūti expresses this idea in the following verse:
व्यतिषजति पदार्थान्तरः कोऽपि हेतु-
र्न खलु वहिरूपाधीन् प्रीतयः संश्रयन्ते।
विकसति हि पतङ्गस्योदये पुण्डरीकं
द्रवति च हिमरश्मावुद्गते चन्द्रकान्तः ॥5
Under the attraction of such love, a young elephant follows his beloved she-elephant and attempts in various ways to please her. Showing this scene to Vasantī, Rāma remarks:
सखि वासन्ति! पश्य पश्य । कान्तानुवृत्तिचातुर्यमप्यनुशिक्षितं वत्सेन।
नीलोत्खातमृणालकाण्डकवलच्छेदेषु सम्पादिताः
पुष्यत्पुष्करवासितस्य पयसो गन्तूषसंक्रान्तयः।
सेकः शीकरिणा करेण विहितः कामं विरामे पुन-
र्यत्स्नेहादनरालनाल नलिनीपत्रातपत्रं धृतम् ॥6
The mountain peacock also, under the influence of this attraction, does not abandon the familiar Kadamba tree; rather, it moves around it and dances joyfully. Therefore, Rāma rightly remarks:
हन्त तिर्यञ्चोऽपि परिचयमनुरुध्यन्ते।
Even animals remain attached through bonds of affection and familiarity. This essence of love, which pervades even among the animal species, represents a pure and spontaneous affection.
In Vedic literature as well, it is seen that through this natural, causeless and spontaneous attraction of love, the celestial sphere, the heavenly world and the earthly realm is bound together in an eternal bond of friendship. In the dramatic works of Bhavabhūti, numerous examples of this pervasive principle of love are scattered throughout the human world. Even when Lava and Candraketu are engaged in combat, they feel an inexplicable attraction toward one another and say:
यदृच्छासंवादः किमु किमु गुणानामतिशयः
पुराणो वा जन्मान्तरनिविडबन्धः परिचयः।
निजो वा सम्बन्धः किमु विधिवशात् कोऽप्यविदितो
ममैतस्मिन् दृष्टे हृदयमवधानं रचयति ॥7
While attempting to determine the cause of their mutual attraction, they consider several possibilities. They wonder whether this attraction is merely accidental, whether it arises from the excellence of each other’s virtues, whether it is the result of a deep acquaintance from a previous birth, or whether there exists some unknown intrinsic relationship between them.
In response to such reflections of Candraketu, Sumantra declares:
भूयसो जीवधर्म एषः। यद्रसमयी कस्यचित् क्वचित् प्रीतिः। यत्र लौकिकानामुपचारस्तारामैत्रकं वा चक्षुराग इति।
Such affection often arises spontaneously and is commonly described as love at first sight. This natural affection is also evident in relationships such as those between Janaka and Daśaratha and between Daśaratha and Kauśalyā, where emotional bonds at times surpass conjugal love. While many poets have depicted the varied experiences of love, Bhavabhūti’s portrayal of mature conjugal love in Uttararāmacarita remains distinctive. The love between Rāma and Sītā is founded upon deep mutual understanding and inner harmony, beyond the influence of external forces. This idea, first shaped by Vālmīki, is further developed by Bhavabhūti. As expressed in the verses:
प्रकृत्यैव प्रिया सीता रामस्यासीन्महात्मनः।
प्रियभावः स तु तया स्वगुणैरेव वर्धितः ॥
तथैव रामः सीतायाः प्राणेभ्योऽपि प्रियोऽभवत्।
हृदयंभेव जानाति प्रीतियोगं परस्परम् ॥8
Even with the advancement of age, there is not the slightest decline in the brilliance and intensity of the love between Rāma and Sītā. At this mature stage of life, Rāma becomes overwhelmed with the delight of Sītā’s touch like a youthful lover and exclaims:
विनिश्चेतुं शक्यो न सुखमिति वा दुःखमिति वा
प्रमोहो निद्रा वा किमु विषविसर्पः किमु मदः।
तव स्पर्शे स्पर्शे मम हि परिमूढेन्द्रियगणो
विकारश्चैतन्यं भ्रमयति च सम्मीलयति च॥9
This appears like the bewildered experience of a young lover. Is the touch of the beloved an experience of joy or sorrow? Is it enchantment, sleep, the spread of some potent poison or the intoxication of wine? In this way Rāma attempts to express that delightful sensation in various forms. At Sītā’s touch, all his senses seem to become overwhelmed and his consciousness appears to whirl and fade away. Not only touch, but even the charming influence of Sītā’s sweet speech enlivens Rāma even in his mature age. He says —
म्लानस्य जीवकुसुमस्य विकासनानि
सन्तर्पणानि सकलेन्द्रियमोहनानि।
एतानि ते सुवचनानि सरोरुहाक्षि
कर्णामृतानि मनसश्च रसायनानि॥10
To Rāma, Sītā’s words are nectar to the ears and an elixir to the mind. Her sweet speech makes the faded flower of his life blossom again, satisfying and enchanting all his senses. Sītā’s companionship, touch and words — everything becomes for Rāma a supreme source of delight. Only separation from Sītā is unbearable to him (Rāma).
Under the shadow of this serene and peaceful love, the lovers sometimes spend sleepless nights in close companionship and unnecessary conversation, without even realizing how the night passes. Recalling such memories, Rāma says—
किमपि किमपि मन्दं मन्दमासत्तियोगादविरलितकपोलं जल्पतोरक्रमेण।
अशिथिलपरिरम्भव्यापृतैकैकदोष्णोरविदितगतयामा रात्रिरेव व्यरंसीत्॥11
At times this love also brings deep and peaceful sleep; resting upon one another they sleep with complete ease and security. Tired from viewing the pictures, Sītā gently leans upon Rāma’s chest in complete trust. Rāma’s arm — upon which no other woman has rested — becomes the pillow for Sītā’s head in sleep.
In the expression of love, Rāma is more vocal than Sītā. Yet, like flashes of lightning, some of Sītā’s words and actions occasionally reveal the eternal Rāma-oriented love flowing within her heart. This makes the profound depth of the stream of love clearly visible to us.
In his writings, Bhavabhūti attempts in many ways and in many contexts to express the nature of the supreme love he envisioned. Among these, two statements expressed directly in words are particularly noteworthy. In the first act of Uttararāmacarita, while describing the nature of ideal love, Bhavabhūti makes Rāma say—
अद्वैतं सुखदुःखयोरनुगतं सर्वास्ववस्थासु यद्
विश्रामो हृदयस्य यत्र जरसा यस्मिन्नहार्यो रसः।
कालेनावरणात्ययात् परिणते यत्प्रेमसारे स्थितं
भद्रं तस्य सुमानुषस्य कथमप्येकं हि तत् प्रार्थ्यते॥12
In true conjugal love there is no duality or difference — it remains the same in joy and in sorrow. In prosperity and adversity, in youth and in old age, it remains equally favourable. Such love never abandons the beloved. In it the heart, exhausted by the struggles and heat of worldly life, finds complete rest and divine tranquillity, which becomes a supreme support in the journey of life. Even though old age and decay may weaken the body, they cannot diminish the brilliance of love. The restless love of youth gradually matures with age, shedding hesitation, restraint and separateness and becomes a deep and concentrated love in which the couple experiences a single unified existence and an exquisite harmony of two lives. However, such ideal conjugal love is rare.
In Mālatīmādhava also, through the character of Kāmandakī, Bhavabhūti speaks of this auspicious unity of marital love.
प्रेयो मित्रं, वन्धुता वा समग्रा सर्वे कामाः, शेवधिर्जीवितं वा।
स्त्रीणां भर्ता, धर्मदाराश्च पुंसामित्यन्योन्यं वत्सयोर्ज्ञातमस्तु॥13
Bhavabhūti presents a unified and noble conception of conjugal love in which all sense of separateness disappears and the conflicts of individuality are dissolved. In this ideal, the question of superiority between man and woman loses all significance. This vision stands as a brilliant contribution to world literature, offering a model through which social harmony may be illuminated and a higher unity realized within human life.
A devoted representative of Indian culture, Bhavabhūti articulates a remarkable ideal of love. Unlike many Western poetic traditions, where youthful love often fades with age and is diminished by the monotony of daily life, his conception preserves its depth and vitality.
Another distinctive feature of Bhavabhūti’s thought is that love does not end in itself; rather, it ultimately culminates in parental affection (vātsalya), reflecting a broader philosophical outlook rooted in Indian tradition.
In the seventh act of Uttararāmacarita, Bhāgīrathī says —
यद्वा सर्वसाधारणो ह्येष मोहग्रन्थिरन्तरश्चेतनावतामनुपल्लवः संसारतन्तुः।
The meaning is that offspring and the affection toward offspring, form a deeply rooted emotional knot in the minds of all living beings endowed with consciousness and sometimes it also becomes a source of suffering. Yet, for the continuity of worldly existence and the stability of life, it is absolutely necessary. Through children the harmonious union of two separate minds that of husband and wife is accomplished. Parental affection becomes the joyful bond of married life. Thus, the ultimate fulfilment of love lies in parental affection. In the third act of Uttararāmacarita, in support of Sītā’s intense maternal longing, Tamasā says—
प्रसवः खलु प्रकृर्षपर्यन्तः स्नेहस्य परः चैतदन्योन्यसंश्लेषणं पित्रोः।
अन्तःकरणतत्त्वस्य दम्पत्योः स्नेहसंश्रयात्।
आनन्दग्रन्थिरेकोऽयमपत्यमिति बध्यते॥14
The ultimate expression of Rāma’s paternal heart is seen in his closeness with Lava and Kuśa and in their embrace. The essence of this analysis is that, in the vision of Bhavabhūti, love is a universal and benevolent principle whose inspiration pervades every element of the world. Under the influence of this principle of love, a deep bond of friendship arises among true human beings. Even in the human world, mutual harmony and stability ultimately rest upon this play of love. Among the many manifestations of that indivisible love, one particularly attractive form is the love between man and woman. In ideal conjugal life, that love brings a heavenly serenity and gentle sweetness into the earthly sphere. And that conjugal love ultimately attains its fullest realization and perfect fulfilment in the sweetness of parental affection.
In the first act of Uttararāmacarita, the following verse occurs —
इयं गेहे लक्ष्मीरियममृतवर्तिर्नयनयो-
रसावस्याः स्पर्शो वपषि बहुलश्चन्दनरसः।
अयं बाहुः कण्ठो शिशिरमसृणो मोक्तिकसरः
किमस्या न प्रेयो यदि परमसह्यस्तु विरहः॥15
In Viraraghava’s commentary, it can be seen that —
इयमिति। इयं गेहे लक्ष्मीर्लक्ष्मीसदृशी। इयममृतवर्तिर्नयनयोः। तथा नयनानन्दकरीत्यर्थः। किमेतत्पर्यन्तानुधावनवचनेन। एतदीयमेव यत्किंचिन्मम पर्याप्तमित्याह — असावस्या इति । वपुषि प्रसिद्धचन्दनव्यावृत्तिः। अस्याः किं न प्रेयः। एतत्संबन्धि किं न प्रियम्। सर्वमपि प्रियमेवेत्यर्थः। अत्र सीतापेक्षया तत्संबध्येव प्रियमिति रामचन्द्रमतमिति कवेराशयोऽवगम्यते। उपसंहारे किमस्या न प्रेय इत्युक्तवान्। इतरथा कथमेषेत्येव न वदेत् । भर्तुमीढश्च — ‘मनसिजरुजः सा वा दिव्या ममालमपोहितुं रहसि लघये-दारब्धा वा तदाश्रयणी कथा’ इत्याह । अत्र रामबाहुरुपधानमिति सीतां प्रति स्वबाहोरुपधानत्वमुक्त्वा ‘अयं बाहुः कण्ठे शिशिरमसृणो मौक्तिकसरः’ इत्युक्तं रामेण । तदिदं वैलक्षष्यातिशयकार्यम्। अत्र ‘इयं गेहे लक्ष्मीः’ इत्यादिभिरेकस्या एव सीतायाः गृहविषये दीपकलिकाकार्यकारित्वं चक्षुर्विषये ज्योत्स्नादिकार्यकरत्वं कण्ठे हारकार्यकारित्वं च व्यज्यते ।16
In Mahāvīracarita also, Rāma, Sītā, Lakṣmaṇa and Urmilā fall in love through mutual glances before marriage. However, the most striking example of pre-marital love undoubtedly appears in Mālatīmādhava. In marriage between man and woman, mutual affection is the most auspicious element. Therefore, in the second act, Kāmandakī declares:
इतरेतरानुरागो हि विवाहकर्मणि परार्ध्यं मङ्गलम्।
- Mutual affection between the couple is indeed the highest blessing in the institution of marriage.
By expressing support for love-based marriage, Bhavabhūti reveals a remarkably modern outlook. When Mālatī and Mādhava are united in marriage through love, the poet presents an ideal picture of conjugal love through the words of Kāmandakī. For a woman, her husband —and for a man, his lawful wife — is the dearest friend, the sum of all relatives, the fulfillment of all desires, the supreme treasure and the very essence of life. Conjugal love does not remain confined merely between husband and wife; its benevolent and sweet influence spreads among all relatives and becomes the greatest wealth of life.
In Uttararāmacarita, during the early phase of conjugal life after marriage, a remarkably vivid picture of the beauty and intimacy of married love has been depicted:
किमपि किमपि मन्दं मन्दमासत्तियोगाद्
अविरलितकपोलं जल्पतोरक्रमेण।
अशिथिलपरिरम्भव्यापृतैकैकदोष्णो-
रविदितगतयामा रात्रिरेवं व्यरंसीत् ॥17
Love is the unified refuge of both joy and sorrow, remaining harmonious in all conditions of life. It offers rest to the weary heart and its mutual affection does not diminish with age. As love matures, shedding the veil of shyness, it becomes a continuous source of auspiciousness, dispelling sorrow and keeping life ever vibrant. To one in love, the beloved is indescribably precious; without the beloved, the world appears empty—thus, to Rāma, a world without Sītā becomes a desolate forest:
प्रियानाशे कृत्स्नं किल जगदरण्यं भवति ॥18
Bhavabhūti perceives love as both physical and spiritual, fundamentally one in essence. Like a lotus arising from mud yet attaining purity, love emerges from desire but is capable of elevation and renunciation. This ideal is embodied in the relationship between Rāma and Sītā in Uttararāmacarita, where separation intensifies rather than weakens their bond. As Sītā declares, “अहमेतस्य हृदयं जानामि ममाप्येषः” their spiritual unity remains unbroken.
Even in separation, Rāma preserves Sītā in his heart, symbolized by her golden image in the Aśvamedha sacrifice. Thus, love remains constant in union and separation, transcending death itself. Across Mahāvīracarita, Mālatīmādhava and Uttararāmacarita, Bhavabhūti presents love as an eternal and transformative force that elevates and sustains human life.
References
1. Uttararāmacarita– 6/11.
2. Mahāvīracarita– 5/59.
3. Ibid– 5/60.
4. Uttararāmacarita– 5/17.
5. Ibid– 6/12.
6. Ibid– 3/16.
7. Ibid– 5/16.
8. Ibid– 6/31-32.
9. Ibid– 1/35.
10. Ibid– 1/36.
11. Ibid– 1/27.
12. Ibid– 1/39.
13. Mālatīmādhava– 6/18.
14. Uttararāmacarita– 3/17.
15. Ibid– 1/38.
16. Uttararāmacarita, Ed. M. R. Kale, Pg. – 36.
17. Uttararāmacarita– 1/27.
18. Ibid– 6/30.
Bibliography
- Bhavabhūti. Mahāvīracarita. Ed. T. R. Ratnam Aiyar. Bombay: Nirnaya-Sagara Press, 1892.
- Bhavabhūti. Mālatīmādhava. Ed. M. R. Kale. Bombay: Messrs Gopal Narayen & Co.
- Ibid. Ed. Srisesraja Sarma Sastri. Banaras: Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series, 1954.
- Bhavabhūti. Uttararāmacarita. M. R. Kale. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1982.
- Ibid. Ed. Ed. P. V. Kane. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.
- Ibid. Ed. Ramakanta Tripathi. Banaras: Chowkhamba Surabharati Prakashan.
- Ibid. Ed. Sitanath Acharya Sastri & Devkumar Das. Kolkata: Sanskrit Pustak Bhandar, 2015 (First Edition).
- Ibid. Ed. Shyamapada Bhattacharyya. Kolkata: Sanskrit Book Depot.
- Ibid. Ed. T. R. Ratnam Aiyar. Bombay: Nirnaya-Sagara Press, 1903.
- De, S. K. History of Sanskrit Poetics. London: Luzac & Co, 1923.
- Kane, P. V. History of Sanskrit Poetics. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1971.
- Keith, A. Berriedale. The Sanskrit Drama. Oxford University Press.
- Pollock, Sheldon. A Rasa Reader: Classical Indian Aesthetics. New York: Columbia University Press.
- Warder, A. K. Indian Kavya Literature. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1977.
- Winternitz, M. A History of Indian Literature. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.